Yopo: Basic Info

Basic information

Yopo is a visionary preparation made from the seeds of the Anadenanthera peregrina tree, native to South America and the Caribbean. Its ritual use is still practiced in various indigenous communities, especially in the Orinoco and Amazon regions, where it forms part of complex spiritual systems.

It is also known as cohoba, ñuá, paricá, epena, or jopo, depending on the region and cultural group. It is used by peoples such as the Yanomami, Piaroa (hüottüja), Piapoco, Guahibo, Cubeo, and Desana, among others. It is used in ceremonies for healing, spiritual connection, or moral and emotional training.

Yopo is generally administered nasally, either blown by another person through long tubes or self-inhaled with Y-shaped ritual instruments. Its use is not recreational or cathartic, but rather seeks to restore spiritual, emotional, and collective balance.

Origin/History

The use of yopo has been archaeologically documented for over 4,000 years in various pre-Columbian cultures. In the Andean region, inhalation tablets and bone tubes associated with Anadenanthera have been found, and the Taíno peoples of the Caribbean used a preparation known as cohoba.

During Christopher Columbus’ second voyage to the Americas (1493–1496), the admiral himself observed the Taíno chiefs of Hispaniola inhaling a powder that caused them to “lose consciousness and behave like drunken men.” This powder, identified centuries later as cohoba, was studied by Fray Ramón Pané, who described how shamans (buhuitihu) used it to enter visionary states. Pané referred to the powder as cohioba, cogioba, or kohobba, according to different later transcriptions (Wassén, 1967; Torres, 1988).

It was not until the 20th century that ethnobotanist W. E. Safford identified this powder as a preparation based on the seeds of Piptadenia peregrina, now known as Anadenanthera peregrina. Safford based his identification on the widespread use of snuff made from this plant—called yopo—among the indigenous peoples of the Orinoco. For centuries, cohoba was mistakenly thought to be a form of tobacco, also used ritually by the Taínos.

Archaeological remains found in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Peru, Costa Rica, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico, including inhalation tablets and bone tubes, evidence the wide geographical distribution and antiquity of the use of entheogenic snuffs on the continent.

In 1801, explorer Alexander von Humboldt described the use of yopo among the Maypures of the Orinoco, although he mistakenly interpreted its potency as coming from lime mixed with fermented seeds. Half a century later, botanist Richard Spruce documented in depth the use of yopo among the Guahibo, although his notes were not published until 57 years later.

At the same time, in the Andean region, the use of similar snuffs was documented under the name vilca or huilca (also known as cébil in northern Argentina), derived from Anadenanthera colubrina, closely related to A. peregrina. Vilca was used by Inca shamans in the 16th century, and evidence has been found that it was administered not only nasally but also rectally (enemas) for purposes still debated between intoxication and purging (De Smet, 1983).

In some Amazonian regions, names such as paricá have been used to designate visionary snuffs, although they generally refer to species of the genus Virola. However, there are reports of rectal use of A. peregrina in peoples such as the Mura and Omagua, although its exact botanical identification remains a matter of debate.

Today, yopo is still used by various indigenous peoples in Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil, and the Caribbean. Each tradition has its own unique practices. For example:

• The Yanomami combine yopo with other plants and blow it through long tubes to contact the hekura (spirits).
• The Hüottüja (Piaroa) call it Ñuá and administer it with Y-shaped tubes. Its use is guided by the meñëruá, master of ceremonial singing.
• The Guahibo, Piapoco, Cubeo, and Desana use regional variants of rapé for collective healing and cosmological connection.
• In the pre-Columbian Caribbean, the Taínos used it as cohoba in community rituals.

Although there are commonalities — such as healing or spiritual function — cosmologies, chants, restrictions, and methods of preparation are culturally specific.

Chemical composition and dosage

The seeds of the Anadenanthera peregrina tree contain a combination of tryptamine alkaloids with visionary properties. The most abundant and active compound when administered nasally is bufotenine (5-HO-DMT), accompanied by traces of DMT (N,N-dimethyltryptamine) and 5-MeO-DMT. On average, one gram of seeds can contain approximately 74 mg of bufotenine, 1.6 mg of DMT, and 0.4 mg of 5-MeO-DMT, although these concentrations can vary significantly depending on the origin of the tree, the maturity of the seeds, and the method of preparation.

Traditional preparation

In Indigenous ritual contexts, such as that of the Hüottüja (Piaroa) people, the green pods are harvested before they ripen and fall to the ground. These green seeds are crushed together with other natural ingredients, forming a paste to which alkaline plant ashes are added. The dough is carefully stretched and left to dry over very low embers, without being toasted at any point in the process. Once dry, a kind of solid biscuit is obtained, which is crushed into stones for storage. Just before consumption, these stones are pulverized into a very fine powder.

This powder is administered nasally. In these traditional practices, a metric dosing system is not used: the amount is determined based on the spiritual, physical, and emotional state of the participant, always within the ceremonial framework and under the guidance of the ritual facilitator. Often, the person is encouraged to consume “the amount that their spirit needs,” with ritual accompaniment and supervision maintained at all times.

Contemporary guidelines

In non-traditional ethnobotanical and experimental settings, guideline ranges have been established based on the nasal administration of dry powder, starting from the average alkaloid content per seed:

• Threshold dose: 30 mg.
• Light dose: 65–300 mg.
• Medium dose: 300–540 mg.
• High dose: 540–800 mg.
• Very high dose: over 800 mg.

A single A. peregrina seed can produce between 250 and 500 mg of powder once roasted and ground, so a medium dose is usually equivalent to the powder from 1 to 2 seeds. In traditional practice, between 1 and 4 seeds are generally used per session, although this varies widely between cultures.

Although Anadenanthera peregrina contains DMT and 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenin is the main active agent when administered nasally. The absorption of DMT and 5-MeO-DMT via this route is very limited, and its effects are usually less pronounced unless specific potentiation methods are used, such as monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibition. It should be noted that the latter is not part of the traditional practices associated with yopo.

In the ritual context of the Hüottüja people, it is common to drink or chew caapi about four hours before receiving Ñuá (yopo), with the intention of prolonging the visions. This caapi, of Hüottüja lineage—which each person accesses through their own plant—is considered the only one suitable for this purpose. Other strains can cause discomfort, such as headaches, when combined with Ñuá.

The ritual consumption of dädä before yopo can also be used. Dädä (Malouetia sp.) is considered the most important medicine of the Hüottüja people. Its use is celebrated in an annual ceremony during the month of August, where other yopeador peoples, such as the Sikuanis, gather. Although this ceremony is open to outsiders, it is physically and mentally demanding. The permanent presence of dädä on the roofs of the churuatas, in the form of a vertical stem, reinforces its centrality as a spiritual and symbolic guide.

Considerations regarding administration

The intensity of the yopo experience can vary depending on multiple factors: the quality and freshness of the preparation, the proportion of alkaline plant ashes used, the method of administration, as well as the physical, mental, and spiritual conditions of the participant.

In high doses, it can cause nausea, nasal discharge, vomiting, and intense physical effects. Therefore, its administration should be carried out with the utmost respect, ideally within a traditional ritual framework and under the guidance of people with legitimate knowledge and experience in its use.

⚠️ Important warning: It has been reported that some people offer yopo without authorization or traditional backing, combining it with plants such as Syrian rue (Peganum harmala) to enhance its effects. This practice is not part of indigenous traditions and can carry considerable physical and psychological risks. It is not recommended at all.

Effects

The effects of yopo may include:

• Increased body vibration frequency.
• Nausea or vomiting (considered purifying).
• Geometric visions and energy patterns.
• Changes in perception of time and body.
• States of mental silence, emotional detachment, and inner clarity.

In some traditions, such as hüottüja, the visions do not evoke personal memories or figures, allowing for emotional release without reliving trauma. This aspect has been interpreted as a form of non-cathartic healing: one “feels without remembering.”

The experience usually lasts between thirty minutes and an hour, although its educational and emotional effects extend over time. It is practiced in stillness and silence, sitting on the floor or on ritual benches. It is not an ecstatic or recreational state, but is used as a tool for character building, emotional self-control, and community ethics.

Legal status

Practices with yopo (Anadenanthera peregrina) are not controlled by the United Nations international drug conventions. However, the use of its active alkaloids (bufotenine, DMT, and 5-MeO-DMT) is controlled in many countries.

The legal status varies:

• In Venezuela, its ritual use by Indigenous peoples is protected by the Constitution (arts. 119-121) and by the Organic Law on Indigenous Peoples and Communities (LOPCI, arts. 12, 71, and 72).
• In Spain, the use of the tree and its seeds is not controlled, but the extraction of its active ingredients may be subject to regulation.
• In other countries in Europe and the Americas, the status is ambiguous, especially if the compounds are isolated or used outside the traditional framework.

Health and risk reduction

Yopo can produce intense effects on both the body and mind. Some risks include:

• Nausea, intense vomiting, or nasal irritation.

• Anxiety, confusion, or disorientation if the context is not properly understood.

• Involuntary body movements (risk of accidents).

• Overwhelming sensations in the absence of ritual guidance.

Its use without preparation, cultural understanding, or outside of traditional settings can carry physical and psychological risks. It is not recommended for recreational contexts or for individuals with mental or cardiovascular vulnerability.

The presence of an experienced guide, a quiet and safe environment, and familiarity with ritual protocols are key elements to reduce risks.

Prevalence of use

Yopo practices remain active in various Indigenous communities across South America and the Caribbean, where it forms part of traditional systems of healing, cosmology, and spiritual organization. Although most of these practices are not widely visible outside their original contexts, they continue to be a vital part of the cultural fabric of these peoples.

Peoples currently using yopo:

• Yanomami (Venezuela and Brazil): They blow yopo mixed with tree barks such as Virola elongata (yakoana) during rituals where they invoke the hekura, spiritual entities. The ceremony is collective and may include singing, dancing, and long periods of fasting.
• Hüottüja (Piaroa) (Venezuela): They refer to this medicine as Ñuá. It is self-administered using Y-shaped tubes (Ñuába) during rituals led by the meñëruá, a figure who combines ceremonial singing with deep spiritual and emotional pedagogy.
• Piapoco, Guahibo, Cubeo, Desana, Tukano, and other peoples along the Orinoco River and Colombian Amazon: These groups use variations of yopo in individual or collective healing contexts, each with their own cosmologies. Preparation involves specific blends of ashes and accompanying plants, and it is generally administered via nasal insufflation.
• Arawak and Taíno peoples (Caribbean): Historically, they used yopo in the form called cohoba for spiritual contact rituals, inhaling the snuff with double tubes in communal ceremonies. Although the practice no longer exists in its original form, it has been the subject of revival and research in some Afro-Caribbean cultural spaces.
• Yekuana and Makiritare (Venezuela): Though less frequently, they have also been documented using ceremonial snuffs made from Anadenanthera or similar plants.

The use of yopo among these peoples varies in frequency, purpose, and technique, but in all cases, it is embedded in relational, non-individualistic worldviews, where the medicine is integrated with song, silence, guidance, and collective intention.

Outside of Indigenous contexts, yopo is very rarely used. In recent decades, there has been some interest from researchers, therapists, and traditional medicine movements, but access remains limited and its use requires deep respect for original knowledge and protocols. There are no epidemiological studies on its use among non-Indigenous populations, though academic and cultural interest in its knowledge is growing.